Characteristics of Romantic Age.

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Characteristics of Romantic Age

S. B. Gardi DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

M.K.BHAVNAGAR University

Written by:- Vala Jyotsna T

Course No:-05

Course Name:- The Romantic Literature Enrollment no :- PG15101042

Characteristics of Romantic Age(1800-1850)

Introduction:

This period from (1800-1850) according to the William.J.Long is known as the age of romanticism or age of Wordsworth generally the duration between 1798 to 1827 is known as romantic period. This period is considered one of the most creative period in the history of English literature. It brought intense change in the production of literature especially in poetry field.

    

                S.C.Agrawal remarks.....

                           

The close of 18 century is characterized by a dramatic change in the history of Europe. In the period of few years its face, thought and literature underwent a remarkable change.

This change manifested in the fury of French revolution. In the industrial  and the scientific. In the literary revolution to which we have given the name of    “The Romantic Revival”.

The word “Revival” indicates a written to something which existed in some previous age and in literature. This return is to those romantic quality which were found in the literature of Elizabethan age.

Definition of the of the term “Romanticism”

Victor Hugo says:-

                               

                                   “Romanticism” is the opposite not of classical but of realism in literature.

George say:-

                           “Romanticism emphasizes on emotion rather than reason the heart opposed to head”.

Rousseau says:-

                              “Romanticism” is means the return to nature.

Girerson says:-

                               “in Romanticism the spirit count more then form.”

Characteristic of Romantic age:-

(1). Romantic enthusiasm

(2). An age of poetry

(3). Return to nature

(4). Woman as novelists

(5). Sympathy for the poor

(6). Modern magazines

(7). Element of Supernatural Power

(8). The age of Symbols and Myths

Romantic enthusiasm:-  

                                   The essence of Romanticism  was that literature must reflect all that is spontaneous and unaffected in nature and man. In the age of Romanticism ,we can see this independence expressed in Coleridge's “Kubla Khan” and “The Rime of Ancient Mariner”. These two are dream picture- one dealing with the orient and the other of a lonely sea. In Wordsworth this literature independence led-him inward to the heart of common thing. These two great poets,Coleridge and Wordsworth represent the Romantic genius of the age.

An age of poetry:-

                                    The Romantic age is basically an age of poetry. The previous century the Neo-classical age was largely the age of prose. While during the age of Romanticism the young writer turn to poetry as a happy man o singing.

                                   The glory of this age can be found in the poetry of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Keats and Shelly. Romantic poetry is a spontaneous overflow of powerful feeling. The Romantic poet is gifted with a strong “Organic Sensibility”.

Women as Novelists:-

                                        For the first time woman took importance role in contribution to the English literature. This age was highly emotion as the woman are more emotional. This spirit of this age gave then the opportunity to expressed themselves in literature. One of the first important woman writer is Mrs.Anne, Jane Austin etc... Her novel become very popular and impress.

Sympathy for the poor:-

                                            Romantic age was marked by human sympathy and by understanding  of the human heart. The Romantic poets unlocked their emotion and feeling and reflected their sympathetic nature certain common subject like a bigger, a country girls, a farmer, a shephered are create in the poetry of Romantic poets.

The Modern Magazines:-

                                             In this age literary criticism was established by the appearance of such Magazines as  

       

          “Edinburgh Review” (1802)

         “The Quarterly Review” (1808)

         “Black woods Magazine” (1817)

         “The Spectator” (1828).

                                             

 These magazines put their influence on all subsequent literature. These magazines were published the work of certain writers like- Charles lamb and gave the opportunity to every writer to make his work known to the world.

Return to Nature:-

Again, this is one of the important characteristic of the Romantic Age. We can also say that the whole age is marked by this characteristic. During this age the writer used the elements of nature to satire on the society. Yes, it is true that most of the people think that this was the time when the writers don’t use satire to reform the society. But that is not true the satire during this time was in an indirect way. The concept of Romanticism becomes quite clear here. We think that romanticism is something related to the physical world. Yes, it is but in a wilder way. Romanticism reflects the nature. Nature is which we see around us like trees, plants, birds, animals, and sea etc. and also the nature of Men. It includes both the meaning at a time. Through using the elements of nature the writers of this time tried to talk about the nature of human beings. Wordsworth’s poem ‘Daffodils’ is the best example.

“I wandered lonely as a cloud

That floats on high o’er vales and hills”

These are just two lines of the poem. But in these two lines also we can see the natural environment created by the poet. When we look at this poem at the surface level we can understand very easily that this is the language used for the common men. I want to give other illustration here that is the novel ‘Frankenstein’ written by Mary Shelly which is the best example of the Nature. Though at surface level we will not be able to find the Nature in this novel but if we analyze this novel in deep then we will be able to find the Natural elements. The major part of this novel talks about the Nature only, because Victor wanted to go against the Nature. The other example of nature I would like to give of John Keats though when he was living he never considered as a great writer. He got fame after his death. And he also died at a very young age. It was said for Keats that he was the priest of beauty as Wordsworth is the priest of the Nature. Here are some lines from Ode to Psyche.

“Yes, I will be thy priest, and build a fane

In some untrodden region of my mind”

Elements of Supernatural power:-

                                                     

These are the two lines in which Keats is praising the beauty of Psyche and says that I will make a temple in my mind so that no one can enter in my mind and I will always worship you in my mind as a goddess. So, here these lines become true that he is the priest of beauty. He uses nature to praise the beauty.

“Thee sitting careless on a granary floor,
Thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind;”

These are other lines from Keats’ another ode ‘Ode to autumn’. He was the poet who celebrates the beauty of autumn. That is why he was so criticized by the other writers of his time and especially by Wordsworth.

Again this characteristic takes us to the roots of this time and that is the endless debate ‘Art for the Art’s sake’ and ‘Art for the Life’s sake’, because this characteristic is in the favor of ‘Art for the Art’ sake’. This characteristic is also connected with the characteristic of imagination. Supernatural power means something which as a human being we don’t have or if I say in other words then beyond the human capacity. As above said that during this time people were aware about their selves and the center was also the individuality. So, many writers tried to give supernatural elements to their characters. The poets of the neo classical age gave more importance to realistic descriptions of day to day life. The romantic poets like Coleridge however, concentrated on describing the supernatural world. The whole poem describes the supernatural and mystical experience of the "Ancient Mariner" in a mysterious manner:

This seraph band, each waved his hand:
It was a heavenly sight!
They stood as signals to the land,
Each one a lovely light:

Here again if I give the example of ‘Frankenstein’ by Mary Shelly then in this novel she tried to give some supernatural touch. During those days electricity was the new invention by human beings. Accordingly, Frankenstein abused electricity, a natural force, to stimulate ‘the lifeless thing’ (Shelley 34). By artificially and miraculously bringing his inanimate project to life, Frankenstein leaves the ordinary course of nature and produces something abnormal and supernatural.

The age of Symbols and Myths:-

                                        With all these characteristics this age is also marked especially for the myths and symbols used by the writers during this time. Human was the center and the symbols and the myths were of the nature of this time. And the symbols and myths were also taken seriously by the people of that time because it suggests many things. We can say that writers used the sugar coated language to highlight the mistakes of the society of that time. Again I would like to give the example of John Keats and his ode ‘Ode on a Grecian Urn’. In this ode he uses many myths. According to Keats urn is like time it knows everything the past as well as the future also. He also depicts some people on this urn that some of them are playing flute pipe and some of them are doing their work. He also depicts a couple. According to Keats the lovers are happy as well as unhappy because they will remain there on that urn always but they can’t touch each other and that is why Keats writes that:

“Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard

Are sweeter;”

It is a kind of symbol used by Keats to showcase the reality of the life.

Conclusion:-

                       

To conclude, the period between 1798-1832 Romanticism brought a drastic change in the production of poetry. It was remarkably a strong movement, “The Return to Nature” the leading Romantic poets.

                     

Thus the Romantic age gave us nature, love sympathy and inspiration the man found his existence hidden in the heart of others. The man went to nature to take rest and sang the love song of nature.

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Characteristics of Victorian age

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Characteristics of Victorian age

S. B. Gardi DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

M.K.BHAVNAGAR University

Written by:- Vala Jyotsna T

Course No:-06

Course Name:- The Victorian  Literature

 Enrollment no :- PG15101042

Characteristics of Victorian age

Introduction:-
                             

 The queen Victoria rules England from 1837 to 1901. This period is considered as Victorian age in the history of english literature. It was the age of peace and prosperity and also the age of prose and novel. The literature of Victorian age was influenced by three different factors which are industrial revolution, scientific inventions and political freedom.
Characteristics of Victorian age:-
                           
(1). An age of Prose and Novel
(2). Deep Moral Not
(3). Realism
(4). Intellectual Development
(5). Search For Balance
(6). Humanitarian Approach.

An age of Prose and Novel:-
                                                               

  The Victorian age was essentially the age of prose and novel W.J.Long in his book history of English literature says Though the age produced many poets nevertheless this is emphatically an age of prose and novel. (The novel in this age fill a place which the drama held in the days of Elizabethan).
The novels were looking like the bright stars in the sky of england during the Victorian era. The great novelists like:- Charles Dickens, Thomas Hardy, William Thackeray, GeorgeEliot, Charlotte Bronte, Emily Bronte and Anne Bronte filled the sky of the Victorian era with their novels.
Some important novels are:-

Thomas Hardy:- 1). Oliver Twists
                            2). Hard Time
                            3). A Tale Of Two Cities
                            4). Great Expectation.

Charrlotte Bronte:- 1). The professor.

Emily Bronte:- 1). Wuthering Heights.

George Eliot:- 1). Middle March.

These novels are just an ice-berg in the ocean of the Victorian novels.

Deep Moral Note:-

The Victorian literature was marked by a deep moral note. In literature this tendency is reflected in the early poetry of Tennyson and in the novel of Charles Dickens. Dickens novels show great respect for tradition and morality. Tennyson, Browning, Carlyle and Ruskin were interested in spreading their message and moral philosophy to their country men.

Realism:-
                           

 The literature of the Victorian age is literature of realism. The literature of this age is related with the socialand political life of his age. The Victorian writers tried to represent the problems of their own age. There for the Victorian literature is the literature of realism rather than of romance. During this time literature became an instrument of social reform (the literature of this age was marked by didacticaims).

Intellectual Development:-
 There was a great revolution in the scientific thoughts during this period. The well-known scientist durvin published his theory of evalution in his famous work “The origin of species”. (This book realism of ideas).
 

Tennyson responded this new thought in his famous poem “In Memoriam” Mathew Arnold showed the science of new intellectual development in his prose and poetry. This new science created a note of passinism in many thinkers.

Search For Balance:-

 During this period the writers tried to balance the romentic as well as the classical influence. This is well obsereved in the works of J.S.Mill during this time. The new religious movement called the oxford movement was started. This movement shows a search for balance.

Humanitarian Approach:-

 In the novels of Charles Dickens, J.S.Mill and certain other novelist. We came accross the humanitarian approach. It is important to note that this age was an age of industrial revolution this industrial revolution creates two classes:-

(1). Labourers

(2). Capitalists.

Some Victorian novels deals with the class consciousness and also present the problems of poverty during this period.

Moral Purpose:-


Victorian literature in its varied aspects was marked by a deep moral note. “the second marked characteristic of the age is that literature, both in prose and poetry, seems to depart from the purely artistic standard of art’s sake and to be actuated by a definite moral purpose.” Tennyson, Browning, Carlyle, Ruskin were primarily interested in their message to their countrymen. They were teacher of England and were inspired by a conscious moral purpose to uplift and instruct their fellow man. Behind the fun and sentiment of Dickens, the social miniatures of Thackeray, the psychological studies of George Eliot, lay hidden a definite moral purpose to sweep away error and to bring out vividly in unmistakable terms the underlying truth of human life. We found good example in ‘The Mill on the Floss’ by Eliot. We found many of the writers write about family and morality in their literary work.
          

 The Victorian literature seems to deviate from “art for art’s sake” and asserts its moral purpose. Many of the writer gives the moral message to the world.

Realism:- 


The literature of the Victorian age was correlated to the social and political life of the age. The Victorian literary artists, living aside a few votaries of art for art’s sake represented by the Pre-Raphaelite school of poets, were inspired by a social zeal to represent the problem of their own age.
           

 Perhaps for this reason the Victorian literature is the literature of ‘realism’ rather than of romance, not the realism of Zola and Ibsen, but a deeper realism which strives to tell the whole truth, showing moral and physical diseases as they are, but holding up health and hope as the moral conditions of humanity. Literature became an instrument of social reform and social propaganda and it was marked with purposeful, propagandistic and didactic aims.
         

The Victorian literature is full of realism. We can say that Oliver twist is a realistic character; in Victorian age we found there is child labor in workhouse. So it called realism, and in Frankenstein there is no real character like monster in real life, but we found character like Oliver in real life. So the Victorian literature represents realism. There is no imaginative character in the literature. In Victorian literature we found realistic character rather than romantic character.

Pessimism:-


A note of pessimism, doubt and despair runs through Victorian literature and is noticed especially in the poetry of Matthew Arnold and Arthur Hugh Clough. Though a note of pessimism runs through the literature of the age, it cannot be dubbed as a literature of bleak pessimism and dark despair. A note of idealism and optimism is also struck by poets like Browning and prose writers like Ruskin. Rabbi Ben Ezra brings out the courageous optimism of the age. Stedman’s Victorian Anthology is, on the whole, a most inspiring book of poetry. Great essayists like Macaulay, Carlyle, Ruskin, and great novelists like Dickens, Thackeray and George Eliot inspire us with their faith in humanity and uplift us by their buoyancy and large charity.
                    

The literature of the age is considerably modified by the impact of science. “It is the scientific spirit, and all that the scientific spirit  implied, its certain doubt, its care for minuteness and truth of observation, its growing interest in social processes, and the conditions under which life is lived that is the central fact in Victorian literature.”
           

The questioning spirit in lough, the pessimism of James Thomson, the melancholy of Matthew Arnold, the fatalism of Fitzgerald, are all the outcome of the skeptical tendencies evoked by scientific research. Tennyson’s poetry is also considerably influenced by the advancement of science in the age, and the undertones of scientific researchers can be heard in ‘In Memoriam’.

Patriotism:-


A note of patriotism runs through Victorian literature. Tennyson, Dickens and Disraeli are inspired by a national pride and a sense of greatness in their country’s superiority over nations. Tennyson strikes the patriotic note in the following lines
                              It is the land that freemen till
                              That sober-suited freedom chose
                              A land of settled government,
                              A land of just and old renown,
                              Where freedom slowly broadens down
                              From precedent to precedent.

In one direction the literature of the Victorian age achieved a salient and momentous advance over the lecture of the Romantic Revival. The poets of the Romantic were interested in nature, in the past, and in a lesser degree in art, but they were not intensively interested in men and women.
           

To Wordsworth the dalesmen of the lakes were a part of the scenery they moved in. He treated human being as natural objects and divested them of the complexities and passions of life as it is lived. The Victorian poets and novelists laid emphasis on men and women and imparted to them the same warmth and glow which the Romantic poets had given to nature. “The Victorian age extended to the complexities of human life, the imaginative sensibility which its predecessor had brought to bear on nature and history. The Victorian poets and novelists added humanity to nature and art as the subject matter of literature.”
                    

We can say that in the literature the effect of patriotism. The writer focuses on national identity and patriotism in Victorian age.


Some other characteristics of this age:-


We found some other minor characteristics of Victorian age. A few literary artists of this age struck the note of revolt against
The Materialistic tendencies of the age, and sought to seek refuge in the overcharged atmosphere of the Middle age.an escapist note is also perceptible in the Victorian literature, and this is particularly noticed in the works of the pre-Raphaelite poets. Morris busied himself in its legends and sagas. “There were some minor reversions to classicism, but taken largely, literature of the age continued to be romantic, in the novelty and variety of it’s from, in its search after undiscovered springs of truth and beauty, in its emotional and imaginative intensity.”
          

 Idealism is often considered as an age of doubt and pessimism. The influence of science is felt here. The whole age seems to be caught in the conception of man in relation to the universe with the idea of evolution.
          

 Though, the age is characterized as practical and materialistic, most of the writers exalt a purely ideal life. It is an idealistic age where the great ideals like truth, justice, love, brotherhood, are emphasized by poets, essayists and novelists of the age.

Conclusion:-

Thus the Victorian era was peaceful reign Englisn people made a remarkeble progress in industrial, commercial and social life. This age witnessed a variety of tendencies in literature.

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The Function of Criticism by T.S.Eliot

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S. B. GARDY DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

M.K.BHAVNAGAR University

Written by:- Vala Jyotsna T

Course No:-07

Enrollment no :- PG15101042

Topic:-
 

                The Function of Criticism by T.S.Eliot

Introduction:-

                          T. S. Eliot wrote the essay “The Function of Criticism in 1923”. and Eliot's essay “Tradition and Individual Talent” was published a few years earlyer 1919.
                           
                            Middlton Murry challenged his essay “Romanticism and the Tradition”. The present essay is Eliot's replay to Murry.
                                

In his essay “The Function of Criticism” T.S.Eliot discusses the basic function according to his.
                                

 “The primary function of criticism is the exposition of work of are by means of write words”.
                                  

The function of the critic is to see a work of art as it is and to present before the reader what he see it the function.
The Qualification of a Perfect Critic:-
T.S.Eliot say that............
                                     

“The most important critic is the auther himself”. No author can produced a great literary work if he does not have and inherent critical faculty in himself.
T.S.Eliot say's.............
                                  

 I belive that criticism emplayed by a treained and skill writer one his own work is the most writer.
                                  

 Some creater writers are superiors to others because of their critical power is a superior.
                                  

According toT.S.Eliot an ideal critic performs two basic functions.

(1). Elucidation of a work of art under has review.

(2). Correction of taste.

The critic must have the talent to underestand the true nature of poetry. He must make disinterested anendeawour to know an propogate the best that is known and thought in the world he must have the courage to reject the wrong an except the trueth.
T.S.Eliot say's that... “The perfect critic should be the whole man with convictions, principales, knowledge and experience of life”.

The Function Of Criticism (1923):-

This present essay is T.S.Eliot replay to Middlton Murry this essay i divided in to Four parts:-

(1). The first part gives brife opinions of Eliot in the essay “Tradition and Individual Talent”.

(2). In the second part he gives a resume of the vies of Middelton Murry.

(3). In the thirds part this gives views of Murry are briefly dismissed.

(4). In the fourth part the poet examins the different espects of the nature an function of criticism.

Tradition and Individual Talent (1919):-

The terms “Tradition and Traditional” are general used and the derogatory it is a stream that conects the part with future by the presents a great poet can show his talent in this a stream of a traditional. No poet no artist of any art has his complete meaning alone his significant can be judge only when he is plest and evoluated in the stream of the great poet in the past. There for T.S.Eliot say's.........
             

  “You can not value a poet alone you must compare him with the death”.

This is the principale of asthetic historical criticism. T.S.Eliot begins the essay refering two certain views. He had expressed in his earlier essay “Tradition and Individual Talent” because they are related present essay.

In the earlier essay he had pointed out that there is a great relationship between the present and the past in the world of literature past work of literature form an ideal order but this ideal order is disturbif realy a new work of art appeares.

There is readjustment of value between the old literature and new literature Tradition is constantly changing from age to age.
Who ever has approve this idea of order of english literature he will not find it rediculuqus that past should be disturb by present as much as the present in directued by the past.
T.S.Eliot say's that........
                                   

  “I thought of literature as the literature of the world literature of the euro literature of the single country, not as a collection of a writing of individuals but as organic wholes”
“critic is the commentation an exposition of work of art by means of by writen worlds”.

After such an aviction we are compatred to admit that their remain certain book, certain essay, certain sentance and certain man who have been usefull to us and over next step is to fined out the principales for deciding what kind of method of criticism should be followed.

Views of Middlton Murry:-

In the second part Middlton Murry expresses his view on classicis and Romanticism there are some critics who hold that classicism and Romanticism are the same thing makes clear distinction between Romanticism and Classicism. He say's that............

“ One can not be a classist and romantic at the same time”.
T.S.Eliot praisesm but doesn't agree with him many  he say's that..........

“The genious of the French is Classical the genious of the English is Romantic”.

The view of the relation of the work of the art to art, literature to literature, criticism to criticism, seemed to me natural an self avident.

Most of our critic feels that they are nice man and the others are very doubtfull repute but Mr. Murry is not one of this he is aware that there are definite positiones to be taken and one must reject some thing and select thing else.

T.S.Eliot Answer to Murry:-

T.S.Eliot say's that “I can not agree with Middlton Murry's forguelation of classicism and Romanticism. The differents between Classicism and Romanticism sense to him differents between the complate and the fragnantary the adult and an the avmature the orderly and chokotic but what Murry show is that there are at least to attitude to words literature and to words everyting and that you can not worlds both Murry belief that.........

“Catholicism stands for the principle of anquetion spiritual authority out side and individual that is also the principle of classicism in literature”.

If the France are the naturaly classical why should be any opposition in France? And if classicism is not natural for them why not is it hear? Were the France man is the year 1600 classical and the english in the some year Romantic? The more impotant different is that the France in the year 1600 had all ready a more mature prose.

Creative And Critical Faculty:-

T.S.Eliot does not agree with the general view creative faculty is better and higher than critical faculty he holds the view that the creative and critical facultys are complimentry to each other criticism can not exist without creative literature and at the some time creative literature can not grow without critical principle and evoluation.

Thus T.S.Eliot refusise Metthew Arnold the view that “Creative faculty is higher and noble there critical faculty” an the contrary T.S.Eliot say's that........

“The large part of labour of and other in composing his work is critical labour the labour of shifting combairy, comparison, controuting, corrective, stating and so on etc.......

Conclusion:-
                   
                        In short this is an important essay about the function of critic the role of tradition and inner voice this is beautiful example of T.S.Eliot style of argument and presentation.

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Five types of cultural studies

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Five types of cultural studies

Name :- Vala Jyotsna T.

Roll no:- 38.

Paper : 8^th ( Cultural Studies)

Topic : Five types of cultural studies

Class : M.A.—1, SEM--2

Year : 2015-17

Maharaja Krishnakumarsinh Bhavnagar University.

Topic: -Five types of cultural studies

What is culture:-

Dictionary meaning of  Culture  is the way of living of the people of India. India's languages religions,dance, music, food and custom differ from place to place within the country.

Matthew Arnold says :-

                                    

It is a pursuit , collective not individual.

T.S.Eliot says:-

Three way actually spoken of cultures

(1). A synecdoche-e.g. Art – culture

(2). A kind of emotional stimulant / general well – being – e.g.

“The culture of India is very ancient and hallolded = an over arching statement.

(3). An aesthetic – an aesthetic used by politicious and the media as a rhetoric without any depth.

Raymond Williams:-

Culture is “Ordinary”

He says “Every worker is a cultures

“Every laborer is a culture” 

Stefan Collini:-

“Culture is an ideal of human life”.

 

·         Five types of cultural studies:

Cultural studies were divided into five parts;-

(1). British Culture Materialism

(2). New Historicism

(3). American Multiculturalism

(4). Postmodernism and Popular Culture

(5). Postcolonial Studies

Cultural study approach generally share four goals:=

(1). Cultural studies transcends the confines of a particular discipline such as literary criticism and history.

(2). Cultural studies is politically engaged.

(3). Cultural studies denies the separation of “high” and “low” or elite and popular culture.

(4). Cultural studies analyzes not only the culture work, but also the means of production.

So let’ take introduction on five types of cultural studies.

1) British cultural Materialism:-

Cultural material began in earnest in the 1950s with the work of F.R. leavis.

Cultural studies are referred to as cultural materialism in Britain.

                                      Matthew Arnold redefined the ‘givens’ of British culture.

“There are no masses; there are only ways of seeing (other) people as masses”

                                          

                                                    -Williams

Britain has two trajectories for culture

1).—First leads to past culture preserver

2).—Second leads to

Louis Althusser insisted that ideology was ultimately in control of the people that the main function of ideology was to produce the society’s existing relations of production and that function is even carried out in literary texts.

Some cultural materialists are:

1) Walter Benjamin

2) Leni Riefenstahl – Triumph of the Will.

3) Lukacs – Reflection theory

Cultural materialists also turned to:-

-Humanistic

-Spiritual insight.

2) New historicism:-

“If the 1970s could be called the age of deconstruction some hypothetical survey of late 20^thcentury criticism might well characterize the 1980s as marking the Return to History, or perhaps the recovery of the referent.”

American counterpart of British cultural  Materialism and history as a material:-

-Subjective

- not a unified whole

-Is the story of the ruling class

New historicist seek “surprising coincidences “that may cross.”

Stephen Greenbelt:-

coined the word New Criticism. “New historicism explains the word “Laputa”from Gulliver’s travels.

“Laputa means the whore” it is describes as gigantic trope of the female body.

The “New Historicism” movement is led by Stephen Greenbelt. It refers to the historical nature of the text and textual nature of the history. It is different from the New Criticism in which theories like deconstruction and structuralism give importance to linguistic approach of the text. On the other hand, new historicism connects the text with its non-literary, historical text and breaks down the distinction between them. It draws inspiration from Michel Foucault’s discourse and power that holds that we find the active reflection of the power relation of that time in the text and it makes and remakes the meaning. New historicism is less a theory for interpreting text and more a set of shared assumption that history and text are intimately interconnected.

New Historicism focuses on the way literature expresses-and sometimes disguises-power relations at work in the social context in which the literature was produced, often this involves making connections between a literary work and other kinds of texts. Literature is often shown to “negotiate” conflicting power interests. New historicism has made its biggest mark on literary studies of the Renaissances and Romantic periods and has revised motions of literature as privileged, apolitical writing. Much new historicism focuses on the marginalization of subjects such as those identified as witches, the insane, heretics, vagabonds, and political prisoners.

3)  American Multiculturalism:

In 1965 the Watts race riots draw

worldwide attention. They were given rights equal to Whites. Leon Botstein emphasized on reading classical and traditional books Bernard Diaz’s says….

“Every American should understand Mexico from the point of view the observers of the conquest and of the history before the conquest. No American should graduate from college without a framework of knowledge that includes at least some construct of Asian history of Latin American history, of African history.”

American political history and we witness bloodshed and atrocities in the name of racism. Fifty years later, if we look at the matter now, we find the idea of race and ethnicity has evolved over the years. Social scientists believe that “race” is the whites’ construct rather than scientifically approved, to assign their privilege and dominance over the black. Interracial marriage is so widespread that the bicultural or multicultural American is the norm rather than exception. With the huge influx of Mexican American, it is predicted that in 2050, English will no more be the national language and Anglo-American a majority.

American Multiculturalism includes:

- African American Writers

- Latina Writer

-  American Indian Writers

- Latin Writers Asian American writers

(4) Postmodernism and popular culture:-

Introduction:-

“Postmodernism” is a term usually applied to the period in literature  and literary theory since the 1960s, though some regard postmodernism as the prevailing intellectual mood since World War-2 ended in 1945. Numerous Philosophers, critics, and belletristic writers can be seen as precursors or early representatives of the cultural and aesthetic approach that would come to be called postmodernism, among them Martin Heidegger, Walter Benjamin, Bertolt Bretch, Jorge Luis Borges, and Roland Barthes. Postmodernism is characterized by a strikingly radical skepticism toward all aspects of western culture, the impetus for which many practitioners of postmodern theory they trace back to the writings of the nineteenth century, philosopher Frederic Nietzsche. Nietzsche’s spiritual descendants seek, in so many words, a new kind of meaning independent of the prevailing cultural “myth” of objective truth.

Post modernism borrows from modernism disillusionment with the givens of society; a penchant for irony. The self-conscious “play “within the work of art: fragmentation and ambiguity; and a restructured, debentured, dehumanized subject.

Recently the notions of met modernism, post-postmodernism and the ‘death of postmodernism’ have been increasingly widely debated in his introduction to a special issue of the journal 20^th century literature titled ‘After postmodernism’ that “declarations of postmodernism’s demise have become a critical commonplace”. The exhibition post modernism- style and subversion 1970-1990 at the Victorian and Albert Museums was billed as the first however to document post ssmodernism as a historical movement.

Post modernism-:

- Ambiguity

- Fragmentation

- Dehumanization

Popular culture divided into…



-Production analysis

-Popular culture

- Historical analysis

- Audience analysis

- Textual analysis

Popular culture is studied after 1960s

popular culture reshaped……..

Popular culture…

1) Ethnicity

2) Race

3) Gender

4) Class

5) Age

6) Region

7) Sexuality.

Popular culture is the entirely of ideas, perspective, attitudes, images and other Phenomena that are within the mainstream of a given culture, especially western culture of the early to mid 20^th century and the emerging global mainstream of the late 20^th and early 21th century. Heavily influenced by mass media, this collection of ideas permeates the everyday lives of the society.

Popular culture is often viewed as being trivial and dumber down in order to find consensual acceptance throughout the mainstream. As a result it comes under heavy criticism from various non mainstream sources (most notably religious groups and counter cultural groups) which deem it superficial, consumerist, sensationalist, and corrupted.

5) Post colonial studies:-

Post colonial Theorists:-

      - Jean Rhys

              -Jamaica Kincaid

      -E.M. Forster

            -Rudyard Kipling.

Post colonialism is a historical phase undergone by third world countries after the decline of colonialism, post colonial theories.

Post colonial literary theorist study the English language within the political zed context.

Gayatri Chakravorly Spivak is post colonial feminist who examined the effects of political independence upon “subaltern” sub proletarian women in the Third World. Spivak's subaltern study reveal how female subjects are silenced by dialogue between the male-dominated west and the male -dominated East, offering little hope for the subaltern woman's voice to rise up amidst the global social institution that oppress her.

Conclusion:

Thus, in cultural studies we can find five types of cultural studies. Which were helps to recognize the different cultures with the different communities and histories.

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